characteristics of helping behaviour research

The authors declare that they have no competing interests. The only existing review [20] was published 14 years ago and focused on studies using heterogeneous definitions of depression or depressive symptoms and help-seeking behaviour, finding that the help-seeking behaviour of individuals with depression or depressive symptoms was influenced by age, ethnicity, social support and clinical and psychiatric factors. Based on the current review, it appears that several factors may influence the likelihood that an individual suffering from major depression will seek professional help. The associations between gender and help seeking were analysed in 16 datasets. Furthermore, including this perspective could provide insight into the associations between certain socio-demographic variables and help seeking. Articles were identified by systematically searching the MEDLINE, EMBASE and PsycInfo databases and relevant reference lists. Work stress refers to the process of job stressors, or stimuli in the workplace, leading to strains, or negative responses or reactions. To treat major depression depending on severity, American and European guidelines (e.g. Department of Medical Psychology, Center for Psychosocial Medicine, University Medical Centre Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany, 2019;10(1):3968. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-11852-z, Klimecki OM, Leiberg S, Ricard M, Singer T. Differential pattern of functional brain plasticity after compassion and empathy training. We thank American Journal Experts (AJE) for English language editing. No, Is the Subject Area "Systematic reviews" applicable to this article? The study characteristics are summarized in S5 Appendix. The desire for social distance from mentally ill people is known to be an indirect measure of stigmatizing beliefs towards people belonging to this group, and a dissonance between these negative stereotypes and the preferred self can impede help-seeking for mental health problems [23]. In three US samples [18, 32, 40] and one Finish sample [39], being female was positively related to help-seeking behaviour. Whatever the reasons behind it, our world would be a much sadder place without altruism. The study characteristics, factors associated with help seeking, results and methodological quality were extracted by JLM and TS. Q1 and Q2 from the ‘Quality Assessment Tool for Observational Cohort and Cross-Sectional Studies” [29] Q3 from the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme [73]. No review protocol exists. These findings are consistent with those on help-seeking behaviour in individuals with depressive symptoms or depressive disorder [20]. illness definition should also be considered [24]. Decision Model of Helping Definition The decision model of helping, introduced in The Unresponsive Bystander by Bibb Latane and John Darley, outlines a process of five steps that will determine whether a bystander will act or not in a helping situation. We documented if and which potential confounding variables were adjusted for in the analyses. For more information about PLOS Subject Areas, click What is it that inspires people to give their time, energy, and money for the betterment of others, even when they receive nothing tangible in return Psychologists have suggested a number of different explanations for why altruism exists. However, four studies showed that being married or living as married was negatively associated with help-seeking behaviour [17, 31, 35, 59]; in contrast, Chartrand, Robinson [32] found the opposite relationship. While we may be familiar with altruism, social psychologists are interested in understanding why it occurs. What inspires these acts of kindness? All other studies reported non-significant results regarding this association [18, 31, 32, 38, 40, 42, 44, 52, 53]. + = significant positive association between characteristic and help-seeking behaviour;— = significant negative association between characteristic and help-seeking behaviour; Ø = no significant association between characteristic and help-seeking behaviour; x = significant differences between different groups; ESEMeD = European Study of the Epidemiology of Mental Disorders; CCHS = Canadian Community Health Survey on Mental Health and Well Being; NESARC = National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions; NSDUH = National Survey on Drug Use and Health; NCS = National Comorbidity Survey; OHS = Ontario Health Study; EHS = Estonian Health Survey; CPES = Collaborative Psychiatric Epidemiology Survey. We included studies investigating adult populations (IC 4) with depressive subsamples of population-based datasets to ensure that the samples included individuals not seeking care (IC 5). Research-backed. Yes Thank you, {{form.email}}, for signing up. Other findings indicate no significant difference in help-seeking behaviour with comorbid substance dependence disorder [17, 38, 44, 63] or alcohol or drug abuse [31]. Two researchers (TS, JLM) independently screened the title and abstracts of 150 records. The Psychology of Heroism: Are Heroes Born or Made? In some cases, these acts of altruism lead people to jeopardize their own health and well-being to help others. No, Is the Subject Area "Behavior" applicable to this article? Yes Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci. No, Is the Subject Area "Mental health therapies" applicable to this article? The study quality was rated as ‘good’ (60%) for more than half of the studies, ‘excellent’ for one study [32], ‘fair’ for 35% of the studies, and ‘poor’ for one study [35]. Demyttenaere, Bonnewyn [65] found that people with depression who had comorbid painful physical symptoms had lower rates of help seeking than those without these comorbid symptoms. Most datasets were collected in the US (N = 10) and Canada (N = 8). Psychological models such as the Self-Regulation Model of Illness Behavior [10], the Health Belief Model [11] and the Theory of Planned Behavior [12] focus on the individual’s perspective in the help-seeking process. Journal of … Altruism is one aspect of what social psychologists refer to as prosocial behavior. Conflicting results were found in male respondents from the CCHS 1.2, in which help-seeking was positively related to a lower adjusted household income [17]. In Spanish respondents from the ‘European Study of the Epidemiology of Mental Disorders’ (ESEMeD), the low to average income group was negatively related to help seeking compared to the highest income group [41]. Yes Using studies on service utilization rates for major depression in community-based surveys, Kohn, Saxena [6] reported that the percentage difference between number of people needing treatment for major depression and number of people seeking professional help ranged between 15.9% (12 month, Florence) [7, 8] and 83.9% (current, UK) [9]. Verywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Additionally, the reference lists of the relevant studies and reviews identified in the electronic search were manually examined. A possible explanation for this finding might be that income as an indicator is not sensitive enough to detect socioeconomic differences in the use of health care services [68]. In conclusion, this week I got to analyze effective and ineffective behaviors in a case study. Kleinberg, Aluoja [19] found that a higher external locus of control was associated with increased help seeking. Why Do We Feel Compelled to Return Favors? Ever wonder what your personality type means? New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Therefore, measures (e.g., odds ratios, chi-square, and regression coefficients) of the association between each variable and help seeking were grouped into significant positive, significant negative and non-significant results and were listed for each variable. In the other five datasets, being middle-aged was significantly related to higher help-seeking rates [32, 41, 49–51]. Aromaa, Tolvanen [39] found no association between help-seeking behaviour and prejudices against mentally ill people. This review found that the associations of help-seeking behaviour with socio-demographic predisposing (e.g., age, gender, ethnicity, education, and family status), enabling (financial situation/income), need (e.g., severity of depression, comorbidity, and duration and number of episodes) and contextual factors were investigated in several studies. We might help others for a variety of reasons such as guilt, obligation, duty, or even for rewards. ... Common characteristics of the disorder are hyperactivity problems related to attention, impulsive behavior in children etc. The study called this theory into question, finding that socialization had a serious impact on altruistic actions in one- and two-year-old children. According to the ‘Behavioral Model of Health Service Use’, these contextual characteristics directly influence service utilization and indirectly influence service utilization through individual characteristics [15]. Principles of Social Psychology. These psychosocial variables are mentioned in the ‘Behavioral Model of Health Service Use’, but which factors influence help-seeking behaviour in what way is not specified. Such research suggests that modeling altruistic actions can be an important way to foster prosocial and compassionate actions in children. For example, black Americans [55], African Americans [18, 37], Mexican Americans [18], and ethnic minorities [40] had lower rates of seeking help compared to whites. 2014;111(48):17071-4. doi:10.1073/pnas.1419408111. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. The major focus of Behaviour Research and Therapy is an experimental psychopathology approach to understanding emotional and behavioral disorders and their prevention and treatment, using cognitive, behavioral, and psychophysiological (including neural) methods and models. Therefore, the current review addresses two questions: (1) Which characteristics associated with help-seeking behaviour in adults suffering from major depression are investigated in the literature? They estimated that the median untreated rate for depression is 56.3% worldwide [6]. Amy Morin, LCSW, is a psychotherapist, international bestselling author and host of the Mentally Strong People podcast. Lin and Parikh [38] reported no significant associations between help seeking and beliefs about improving through or without professional care and feeling embarrassed about seeking help. Nadler, A., & Halabi, S. (2006). Latane, B., & Darley, J. M. (1970). Sussman, Robins [33] reported that blacks had lower odds of seeking help than whites only in people with less severe depression. For example, in three datasets, more years of education and a higher degree were positively associated with help-seeking behaviour after adjusting for clinical and socio-demographic variables [32, 42, 44, 52]. Socio-demographic and need factors appeared to influence help-seeking behaviour. The current review focusses on contextual and individual characteristics as well as use of personal health services and relations between characteristics and use of personal health services (printed in bold). Other instances, known as reciprocal altruism, involve taking actions to help others with the expectation that they offer help in return.. Behaviour Varies in Complexity 3. Affiliation Yes Negative attitudes towards antidepressants were negatively related to help-seeking behaviour [39]. Although social support was not directly associated with help-seeking behaviour in the Estonian health survey, emotional loneliness was associated with increased help seeking among depressed persons with an external locus of control [19]. The purpose of this review was to apply a theoretical framework to investigate the individual and contextual characteristics associated with professional help-seeking behaviour for emotional problems in adults with major depression. Studies had to include results on the factors influencing help-seeking behaviour (IC 7). Although these groups may be at a higher risk for not seeking professional help for major depression, the reasons for this higher risk need to be clarified. Having comorbid generalized anxiety disorder [17, 44, 47] or a panic disorder [31, 62] was positively related to help-seeking behaviour. This study as not funded and part of the dissertation of Julia Luise Magaard (JLM). Several studies investigated the association between help-seeking behaviour and individual characteristics, such as socio-demographic predisposing factors (e.g., age, gender, ethnicity, education, and family status), enabling factors (financial situation/income) and need factors (e.g., severity of depression, comorbidity, and duration and number of episodes). Several studies investigated predisposing (age (N = 17), gender (N = 16), ethnicity (N = 9), education (N = 11), marital status (N = 12)), enabling (income (N = 12)), need (severity (N = 14), duration (N = 9), number of depressive episodes (N = 6), psychiatric comorbidity (N = 10)) and contextual factors (area (N = 8)). Additionally, the influence of illness beliefs, treatment beliefs, anticipated stigmatization and perceived need for mental health care on help seeking may be worth investigating. Data synthesis was performed by vote counting because of the heterogeneity of settings, measures, adjustments and the number of investigated variables. Despite the availability of effective treatment options, researchers continue to find that a significant number of individuals suffering from major depression do not seek professional help. here. However, causal conclusions cannot be drawn from analyses on the basis of mainly cross-sectional data (e.g. Raven, B. H. (1992). Fourth, there was a lack of studies that quantitatively investigated the influence of individuals’ beliefs and perceptions on their help-seeking behaviour. In the current version of his ‘Behavioral Model of Health Services Use’, Andersen [15] distinguishes between contextual and individual characteristics influencing service utilization and health-related outcomes (Fig 1). Research suggests that 4 percent of the ... Below are seven characteristics of the modern sociopath or psychopath. Transformational leader behaviors and their effects on followers’ trust in leader, satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behaviors. Help-seeking behavior: Psychological costs and instrumental benefits. Boerema, Kleiboer [34] reported that own negative attitudes towards people with depression are negatively related to help-seeking, whereas participants’ beliefs about how other people think about depression was unrelated to help-seeking. The majority of studies reported no association between income and help-seeking behaviour. Having trouble concentrating [31, 35, 46] and suicidal thoughts or ideation [31, 35, 46, 52] were positively related to help-seeking behaviour. The results from the ‘National Survey of American Life’ (NSAL) showed that although African Americans reported higher rates of seeking help than Caribbean Blacks, this difference was only significant in a sample of adults with severe or very severe symptoms [56] and was not significant in a sample of adults with mild to moderate symptoms [56] or in a subsample of mothers [57]. Belonging to a different ethnic group was defined differently between the studies. Two researchers (JLM, ALB) searched the MEDLINE, EMBASE and PsycInfo electronic databases in February 2017 (09.02.2017) using key words and a standardized vocabulary (e.g., MeSH) presented in S2 Appendix. However, they found that a stronger desire for social distance was negatively related to help seeking. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0176730.g002. These terms aimed to represent the concepts of ‘Depression’ and ‘Help-Seeking’. We agree with Andersen’s argumentation that social support can facilitate or impede help-seeking behaviour and therefore serves as an enabling resource [15] whereas the social structure including family situation predisposes help-seeking. To investigate the factors of interest in a population with a comparable depression status, studies reporting on the help-seeking behaviour of individuals with a major depressive episode or major depression disorder were included (IC 2). Based on the guidelines and in accordance with other reviews on help-seeking [16, 23, 28], we defined professional help-seeking as contacting a health practitioner or service for mental health reasons at least once or receiving therapy including primary care and specialized care in outpatient and inpatient settings in a defined time period (IC 6). Fears about antidepressant treatment could be a particular problem if practical or psychological barriers to seeking psychotherapy exist. Interestingly, after adjusting for several clinical and socio-demographic factors, having a generalized anxiety disorder, agoraphobia or panic disorder in the previous 12 months was significantly related to higher help-seeking rates in OHS respondents but not in NCS respondents [53]. Empathy: Researchers suggest that people are more likely to engage in altruistic behavior when they feel empathy for the person who is in distress, a suggestion known as the empathy-altruism hypothesis. No, Is the Subject Area "Ethnic epidemiology" applicable to this article? First, the vast majority of the studies reviewed were conducted in the US and Canada, which reduces the external validity of the findings. [17, 18]). Researchers have found that children tend to become more altruistic as their sense of empathy develops. Nat Commun. For example, we might help others to relieve our own distress or because being kind to others upholds our view of ourselves as kind, empathetic people. Other cognitive explanations include: The underlying reasons behind altruism, as well as the question of whether there is truly such a thing as "pure" altruism, are two issues hotly contested by social psychologists. Specifically, severity of depression was positively related to help-seeking in seven of the 16 datasets [31, 39, 40, 46, 47, 60, 61]. Picking a Topic for Your Social Psychology Research Experiment, Daily Tips for a Healthy Mind to Your Inbox, Rethinking natural altruism: Simple reciprocal interactions trigger children's benevolence, Understanding altruism: Self and other concerns, Examining charitable giving in real-world online donations, Differential pattern of functional brain plasticity after compassion and empathy training. Additionally, no differences in help-seeking behaviour were found between the American and Canadian samples [40] or between the Francophone Canadian and European samples [67]. Because of the high level of homogeneity in study design, we considered only criteria with variance between studies. Qualitative data synthesis was performed to illustrate which influencing factors were investigated and to discuss heterogeneous findings (e.g., adjusted and unadjusted results) from samples in heterogeneous contexts (e.g., countries, health care systems). For instance, mainly no associations between certain predisposing factors (e.g. An association between gender and help-seeking was not found in Spanish [41], Ethiopian [42], Canadian [38, 40, 43–45], American [31, 35], Finnish [46, 47], Netherlands [34] or Mexican [48] samples. Thirty-nine studies and all 26 datasets reported results on individual characteristics, as shown in S6 Appendix. Yes Two criteria of 14 from the Quality Assessment Tool for Observational Cohort and Cross-Sectional Studies [29] were selected to examine internal validity (Q1 and Q2, S4 Appendix). Predisposing factors that seem most likely to decrease help-seeking behaviour in individuals with major depression are, being young or elderly, being male, belonging to certain ethnic groups and having a lower educational status. Kin selection is an evolutionary theory that proposes that people are more likely to help those who are blood relatives because it will increase the odds of gene transmission to future generations. The theory suggests that altruism towards close relatives occurs in order to ensure the continuation of shared genes. employment status), enabling factors (e.g. Differences in help-seeking between different ethnic groups were reported in seven studies [18, 32, 33, 37, 40, 54, 55]. Individual characteristics of the current model can be expanded to include predictors of help-seeking behaviour like treatment and illness beliefs [10], perceived susceptibility and severity of symptoms as well as perceived expectations regarding treatment and self-efficacy [11, 12] and motivational factors [12]. Neurobiologists have found that when engaged in an altruistic act, the pleasure centers of the brain become active. Although the samples were homogenous regarding the formal diagnosis of major depression, the studies differed in terms of the samples’ age, gender and ethnicity as well as the health care systems affecting the participants. Regardless, accounting for the financing of health care systems it is necessary to interpret these associations [15]. Apart from attitudinal barriers, structural barrier like cultural inappropriateness of interventions could explain lower help-seeking rates among ethnic minorities [24]. Annual Review of Psychology, 56, 365-392. A Stanford study suggested that interactions and relationships with others have a major influence on altruistic behavior. Psychologists have long debated whether some people are just born with a natural tendency to help others, a theory that suggests that altruism may be largely controlled by genetics. Nonetheless, the initial findings show that social support might be associated with help-seeking behaviour [17, 35, 52]. An author, educational consultant, and factors associated with increased help seeking ( e.g perfect! [ 11 ], these acts of altruism, from holding the door for strangers to giving to. Between age and help seeking, results and methodological quality were extracted JLM! Studies reported no association between age and help seeking positive association could confirmed... Dissertation of Julia Luise Magaard ( JLM ) independently screened the title abstracts. To become more altruistic as their sense of empathy develops ≥.41 [. 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